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We investigate intersecting wage gaps by gender and nativity by comparing the wages between immigrant women, immigrant men, native women, and native men based on Western German survey data. Adding to the analytical diversity of the field, we do a full comparison of group wages to emphasize the relationality of privilege and disadvantage, and we use a nonparametric matching decomposition that is well suited to address unique group-specific experiences. We find that wage (dis)advantages associated with the dimensions of gender and nativity are nonadditive and result in distinct decomposition patterns for each pairwise comparison. After accounting for substantial group differences in work attachment, individual resources, and occupational segregation, unexplained wage gaps are generally small for comparisons between immigrant women, immigrant men, and native women, but large when either group is compared to native men. This finding suggests that the often presumed "double disadvantage" of immigrant women is rather a "double advantage" of native men.

We investigate intersecting wage gaps by gender and nativity by comparing the wages between immigrant women, immigrant men, native women, and native men based on Western German survey data. Adding to the analytical diversity of the field, we do a full comparison of group wages to emphasize the relationality of privilege and disadvantage, and we use a nonparametric matching decomposition that is well suited to address unique group-specific experiences. We find that wage (dis)advantages associated with the dimensions of gender and nativity are nonadditive and result in distinct decomposition patterns for each pairwise comparison. After accounting for substantial group differences in work attachment, individual resources, and occupational segregation, unexplained wage gaps are generally small for comparisons between immigrant women, immigrant men, and native women, but large when either group is compared to native men. This finding suggests that the often presumed "double disadvantage" of immigrant women is rather a "double advantage" of native men.

Abstract
We exploit the natural experiment of German reunification in 1990 to investigate if the institutional regimes of the formerly socialist (rather gender-equal) East Germany and the capitalist (rather gender-traditional) West Germany resulted in differing gender norms regarding who should be the family breadwinner. We use data for three periods between 1983 and 2016 from the German Socio-Economic Panel. Density discontinuity tests and fixed-effects regressions suggest that married couples in West (but not East) Germany diminished the wife's labor market outcomes in order to avoid situations where she would earn more than him. However, the significance of the male breadwinner norm seems to decline in West Germany since reunification, converging to the more gender egalitarian East Germany. Our work provides evidence that political and institutional frameworks can shape fairly persistent gender identity norms that influence household economic decisions for some time, even when these frameworks change.

We exploit the natural experiment of German reunification in 1990 to investigate if the institutional regimes of the formerly socialist (rather gender-equal) East Germany and the capitalist (rather gender-traditional) West Germany shaped different gender identity prescriptions of family breadwinning. We use data for three periods between 1984 and 2016 from the representative German Socio-Economic Panel (SOEP). Density discontinuity tests and fixed-effects regressions suggest that married couples in West (but not East) Germany diminished the wife's labor market outcomes in order to avoid situations where she would earn more than him. However, the significance of the male breadwinner prescription seems to decline in West Germany since reunification, converging to the more gender-egalitarian East Germany. Our work emphasizes the view that political and institutional frameworks can shape fairly persistent gender identity prescriptions that influence house-hold economic decisions for some time, even when these frameworks change.

We exploit the natural experiment of German reunification in 1990 to investigate if the institutional regimes of the formerly socialist (rather gender-equal) East Germany and the capitalist (rather gender-traditional) West Germany shaped different gender identity prescriptions of family breadwinning. We use data for three periods between 1984 and 2016 from the representative German Socio-Economic Panel (SOEP). Density discontinuity tests and fixed-effects regressions suggest that married couples in West (but not East) Germany diminished the wife's labor market outcomes in order to avoid situations where she would earn more than him. However, the significance of the male breadwinner prescription seems to decline in West Germany since reunification, converging to the more gender-egalitarian East Germany. Our work emphasizes the view that political and institutional frameworks can shape fairly persistent gender identity prescriptions that influence household economic decisions for some time, even when these frameworks change.

We exploit the natural experiment of German reunification in 1990 to investigate if the institutional regimes of the formerly socialist (rather gender-equal) East Germany and the capitalist (rather gender-traditional) West Germany shaped different gender identity prescriptions of family breadwinning. We use data for three periods between 1984 and 2016 from the representative German Socio-Economic Panel (SOEP). Density discontinuity tests and fixed-effects regressions suggest that married couples in West (but not East) Germany diminished the wife's labor market outcomes in order to avoid situations where she would earn more than him. However, the significance of the male breadwinner prescription seems to decline in West Germany since reunification, converging to the more gender-egalitarian East Germany. Our work emphasizes the view that political and institutional frameworks can shape fairly persistent gender identity prescriptions that influence household economic decisions for some time, even when these frameworks change.

Wohnungsfragen sind soziale Fragen und werden vor allem in den großen Städten intensiv von Politik, Verbänden und sozialen Bewegungen diskutiert. Angesichts steigender Mieten und sozialer Versorgungsprobleme werfen diese Debatten sozial- und wohnungspolitische Fragen nach den Ursachen, dem Ausmaß, dem Muster der Betroffenheit und auch Lösungsmöglichkeiten auf. Mit der vorliegenden Analyse zur Entwicklung der Wohnverhältnisse und der Wohnversorgung in 77 deutschen Großstädten mit mehr als 100.000 Einwohner*innen bringen wir uns in die Debatte ein. Die Auswertungen von Mikrozensusdaten zeigen, dass sich im Zeitraum von 2006 bis 2018 die soziale Ungleichheit im Bereich des Wohnens verschärft und hohe Mietkostenbelastungen verfestigt haben: Wenngleich die Mietbelastungsquote im genannten Zwölfjahreszeitraum über alle Haushalte in den Großstädten weitgehend stabil geblieben ist, zahlten 4,1 Millionen bzw. 49,2 Prozent aller Mieter*innenhaushalte im Jahr 2018 mehr als 30 Prozent ihres Einkommens für die Miete und überschritten damit die Grenze der Leistbarkeit. Weitere Auswertungen zeigen die sozialen Versorgungsdefizite in der Wohnraumversorgung auf: Im Jahr 2018 lebten 4,4 Millionen Haushalte in zu kleinen oder im Verhältnis zu ihren Einkommen zu teuren Wohnungen. Das entspricht einem Anteil von fast 53 Prozent aller Mieter*innenhaus-halte, die in nicht leistbaren bzw. in nicht angemessen großen Wohnungen lebten.

Wohnungsfragen sind soziale Fragen und werden vor allem in den großen Städten intensiv von Politik, Verbänden und sozialen Bewegungen diskutiert. Angesichts steigender Mieten und sozialer Versorgungsprobleme werfen diese Debatten sozial- und wohnungspolitische Fragen nach den Ursachen, dem Ausmaß, dem Muster der Betroffenheit und auch Lösungsmöglichkeiten auf. Mit der vorliegenden Analyse zur Entwicklung der Wohnverhältnisse und der Wohnversorgung in 77 deutschen Großstädten mit mehr als 100.000 Einwohner*innen bringen wir uns in die Debatte ein. Die Auswertungen von Mikrozensusdaten zeigen, dass sich im Zeitraum von 2006 bis 2018 die soziale Ungleichheit im Bereich des Wohnens verschärft und hohe Mietkostenbelastungen verfestigt haben: Wenngleich die Mietbelastungsquote im genannten Zwölfjahreszeitraum über alle Haushalte in den Großstädten weitgehend stabil geblieben ist, zahlten 4,1 Millionen bzw. 49,2 Prozent aller Mieter*innenhaushalte im Jahr 2018 mehr als 30 Prozent ihres Einkommens für die Miete und überschritten damit die Grenze der Leistbarkeit. Weitere Auswertungen zeigen die sozialen Versorgungsdefizite in der Wohnraumversorgung auf: Im Jahr 2018 lebten 4,4 Millionen Haushalte in zu kleinen oder im Verhältnis zu ihren Einkommen zu teuren Wohnungen. Das entspricht einem Anteil von fast 53 Prozent aller Mieter*innenhaus-halte, die in nicht leistbaren bzw. in nicht angemessen großen Wohnungen lebten.

Objective: This paper draws on data from the Microcensus to provide a long-term overview of the labour market performance of different arrival cohorts of non-German women and men who immigrated to (western) Germany. Background: While there is a large body of research on the labour market outcomes of migrants to Germany, a long-term and gender-specific overview is missing. Method: We provide descriptive analyses of the employment rates, working hours, and occupational status levels of different arrival cohorts by gender, calendar year, and duration of stay. The data cover the time period 1976-2015. Results: With the exception of the earliest cohort, migrant women and men were consistently less likely to be employed than their German counterparts. While the average working hours of migrant women of earlier cohorts were longer than those of German women, this pattern reversed due to a considerable decline in the average working hours of migrant women across subsequent cohorts. The occupational status levels of female and male migrants increased across the arrival cohorts, corresponding to higher levels of education. Analyses by duration of stay indicate that the occupational status of the arrival cohorts tended to decline during their initial years of residence, and to stagnate thereafter. This pattern seems to be due in part to selective outmigration. Conclusion: Our results clearly show that the labour market performance of immigrants varied greatly by arrival cohort, reflecting the conditions and policy contexts during which they entered Germany. This conclusion applied especially to migrant women.